Health Awareness Of Men Health And Social Care Essay

Although this is right the modern adult male is an germinating gender, doing alterations to better their life style, going more wellness witting and gaining they can do a difference. ( Millan.G, 2010, p.i ) The intent of this essay is to briefly outline some of the alterations work forces can and are doing when it comes to their ain wellness and good being. Besides to discourse the options available for the intervention of prostate malignant neoplastic disease and the advantages and hazards that lay behind holding a vasectomy. Work forces are taking charge and going responsible for their determinations when it comes to their wellness. Implicating things into their life style which are holding long term effects on their wellness, some of the alterations which can be made are ; alterations within 1s diet, believing about what one chow, how much and when. Exercise and weight are taken into consideration along with fume intoxicant and drug consumption, normally necessitating one to discontinue. ( Beazley M. , 2011, p.1-61 ) Other of import things that work forces are sing when altering 1s lifestyle is the consciousness of their emotional well being, the effects of equal force per unit area, emphasis degrees and direction every bit good as guaranting that regular wellness cheques are carried out. Health consciousness is a thing of the modern adult male. Typically work forces of the yesteryear have had a stereotyped image that they have felt they need to populate up to that has developed over old ages, this being that the male gender was the ‘stronger ‘ or ‘muscular ‘ gender and for many work forces acknowledging a wellness concern or unwellness was like acknowledging failing. Society ‘s manner of thought has easy evolved, now work forces and their households are encouraged to be proactive about work forces ‘s wellness and it is no longer considered a failing to acknowledge unwellness or inquire for aid. ( Millan, 2010, p.vi ) Health consciousness plays a immense function when it comes to the bar and sensing of many diseases, malignant neoplastic diseases and life threatening unwellnesss. Harmonizing to the New Zealand Guidelines Group, about 4 in every one hundred deceases amongst work forces are caused by prostate malignant neoplastic disease. Statisticss from 2001 show that about two tierces the deceases were aged over 75 old ages of age and that prostate malignant neoplastic disease is the 3rd deadliest amongst work forces. ( Ministry of Health ( MOH ) , 2008. P.5 ) Prostate malignant neoplastic disease is a malignant tumour which starts in the prostate secretory organ and is portion of the male generative system. ( MOH, 2008, p. 4 ) In younger work forces it is merely little, incorporating a hole in the centre which the urethra, the tubing that passes piss from the vesica to out of the organic structure. As work forces mature through to an old age this frequently enlarges doing all kinds of jobs, most normally partially or wholly cutting off urine supply. ( Millan, G. 2010, p.147-149 ) Cancer of the prostate can be both a slow turning malignant neoplastic disease doing no symptoms or sawed-off life, every bit good as a rapid turning malignant neoplastic disease which finally escapes the prostate spreading to environing tissue and variety meats, this when the malignant neoplastic disease go life endangering. ( MOH, 2008, p.4 ) At this point the malignant neoplastic disease is able to be treated but considered incurable. ( Millan, G. 2010, p.149 ) Prostate malignant neoplastic disease can be treated in many different ways depending on what phase it is detected and the badness of its growing. These intervention options include hormonal, surgery and radiation interventions. ( Prostate Cancer, 2012, para 7 ) Today there are 6 types of standard interventions available for those diagnosed with prostate malignant neoplastic disease these are alert waiting, surgery, radiation therapy, endocrine therapy, chemotherapy and biologic therapy. Patients can besides choose to take portion in clinical tests of new types of interventions. Current clinical interventions consist of Cryosurgery, high strength focused ultrasound and Proton beam radiation therapy. ( National Cancer Institute, 2012, para 1-2 ) Usually it is recommended that a clinical intervention be carried out in concurrence with a standard method of intervention. ( Prostate Cancer, 2012, para 7 ) The interventions are categorized into two groups ; healing intervention and non-curative intervention. Curative intervention works towards bring arounding the disease either by surgery to take the malignant neoplastic disease or destructing the malignant neoplastic disease cells by agencies of radiation therapy. Non-curative interventions are used when the malignant neoplastic disease has spread and there is no longer a opportunity of cure spot there is still a high possibility of decelerating the patterned advance of the malignant neoplastic disease down. ( MOH, 2008, p12 ) There are many factors which increase the possibility of a adult male developing prostatic malignant neoplastic disease. Harmonizing to Mead ( 1992 ) surveies have shown that those who have had a vasectomy are at an increased hazard of developing prostate malignant neoplastic disease later in life. ( Mead, N. , 1992, Para 2 ) A vasectomy is the procedure in which a male becomes unfertile, unable to bring forth seeds incorporating sperm. This is achieved by holding the two tubings, which carry sperm from the testicles to the phallus, cut and blocked. ( Mancini, L.A, 2012, para1 ) Although a vasectomy reversal is possible the determination to hold the process done should be exhaustively thought through, taking into consideration all of the hazards and advantages as a vasectomy reversal is non effectual one hundred per centum of the clip. Merely 40-75 % of the clip the reversal is a success. ( Mancini, L.A. , 2012, para 1 ) Some advantages of under traveling a vasectomy as a signifier of long-run sterilisation over other processs available are it is a cheaper, less invasive and is considered safer compared with the likes of the female process ; a tubal ligation. ( Ezekiel & A ; Co, 2010, para 1 ) A Vasectomy is a one time off process that does non necessitate any pills or devices used for birth control that are likely to bury to be taken. It is considered a dependable method of birth control and harmonizing to Relay Clinical Education there is merely a 0.1 % opportunity of falling pregnant after a vasectomy. ( Relay Clinical Education, 2012, p.4 ) With all advantages lie hazards and it is good known that a vasectomy, although rare can neglect at any point, this normally occurs shortly after the process, ensuing in an unexpected gestation. ( Halder, N, 2000, para 1-2 ) There are besides physical hazards and disadvantages which include swelling of the testicles, some degree of uncomfortableness, and some hemorrhage in the scrotum may be experienced following the process. Like all surgical scratchs or cuts there is besides hazard of infection and extra hemorrhage. Although rare chronic hurting in one or both of the testiss can besides be an issue and as a local anaesthetic is required these is ever hazard of it non working efficaciously or the patient holding an allergic reaction to the drugs. ( Relay Clinical Education, 2012, p.4 ) In decision work forces ‘s wellness today is more recognized to be an of import manner of future coevalss. Society is altering for the better of work forces and work forces are being encouraged to assist themselves and inquire for aid. Work force today attention about their wellness and good being, and are making more to better both their physical and psychological wellness along with covering with their emotional wellness. Key factors behind populating an gratifying life and keeping good wellness come from a combination of maintaining fit, healthy feeding, looking and experiencing younger, great sex, being involved in healthy relationships, taking a stress free life style and holding assurance. There are many effectual options available for the bar, sensing and intervention of prostate malignant neoplastic disease depending on the person ‘s instance. Like all processs a vasectomy has many advantages and disadvantages that need to be extremely considered before any pick about household planning is made.

Assess the Corporate Social Responsibility of Telecommunication Industries

Mobile telecommunication industries in this country with time have increasingly played major roles in not only the lives of the people within the community in which they are situated but also in the total economic well being of the country as a whole through their social responsibility activities.The Mobile telecommunication industry in this country has increased tremendously within the past couple of years, and have increasingly played major roles in not only the lives of the people within the community in which they are situated but also in the total economic well being of the country as a whole through their social responsibility activities. The idea of Social Responsibility has developed differently around the world because of different histories, culture and institution. Steiner George 2000) In the past years, the multi-faceted problems made it almost impossible for indigenous industries to undertake social activities in developing countries. However, corporate social responsibi lity (CSR) research has blossomed in this new millennium. This is due to the increasing concern expressed by policy makers and individual bodies about corporate social responsibility and the pressure exerted on organizations to demonstrate high ethical standards.This project is very important because Ghana may need a new code of conduct, laws and regulations and multi-stakeholder agreements and private voluntary initiatives as new businesses are beginning to emerge into our system. Telecommunication industry is a typical example of a fast growing industry within our system. It is therefore imperative that we acknowledge the significance of their corporate contribution to the societies and the nation, for this foresight to be smart and articulate. 1. 2 BACKGROUND STUDYThe precise concept of CSR is understood in different ways, having different representations of the concept relatable to different paradigms and concerns. Aside all the differences pertaining to the nature and content o f CSR, a number of the concepts includes human rights, environmental responsibility, diversity management, sustainability, and philanthropy, meaning that it is a complex area with an interdisciplinary focus. It is generally agreed that CSR involves corporations voluntarily exceeding their legal duties to take account of social, economic and environmental impacts of their operations.For example, the European Commission defines CSR as: â€Å"A concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interactions with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis† (European Multistakeholder Forum on CSR, 2004: 3) Corporate Social Responsibility also relates to those management philosophies, policies, procedure and act that have advancement of social welfare as one of their primary objectives (By Boone and Kurtz 1987) CSR is about how companies manage the business processes to produce an overall positive impact on society.Its conce rn is related to certain aspects of the company’s operations such as the quality of their management – both in terms of people and processes, and the nature of, and quantity of their impact on society in the various areas. The term â€Å"CSR† came in to common use in the early 1970s, after many multinational corporations were formed. The term stakeholder, meaning those on whom an organization's activities have an impact, was used to describe corporate owners beyond shareholders as a result of an influential book by R Freeman in 1984. 2] ISO 26000 is the recognized international standard for CSR Public sector organizations. It is widely accepted that CSR adheres to similar principles but with no formal act of legislation. The UN has developed the Principles for Responsible Investment as guidelines for investing entities. Corporate social responsibility (CSR), also known as corporate responsibility, corporate conscience, corporate citizenship, responsible business , sustainable responsible business (SRB), or corporate social performance,[1] is a form of corporate self-regulation integrated into a business model.Ideally, CSR policy would function as a built-in, self-regulating mechanism whereby business would monitor and ensure its support to law, ethical standards, and international norms. Consequently, business would embrace responsibility for the impact of its activities on the environment, consumers, employees, communities, stakeholders and all other members of the public sphere. Furthermore, CSR-focused businesses would proactively promote the public interest by encouraging community growth and development, and voluntarily eliminating practices that harm the public sphere, regardless of legality.Essentially, CSR is the deliberate inclusion of public interest into corporate decision-making, and the honoring of a triple bottom line: people, planet, profit. Stakeholders are taking an increasing interest in the activity of the company. Most l ook to the outer circle, that is, what the company has actually done, good or bad, in terms of its products and services, in terms of its impact on the environment and on local communities, or in how it treats and develops its workforce.Out of the various stakeholders, it is financial analysts who are predominantly focused – as well as past financial performance – on quality of management as an indicator of likely future performance. Developed countries have worked out a way around ensuring that local and international businesses or companies make contributions towards community development. Sainsbury’s and Tesco for instance are typical examples of companies that have contributed towards every community they operate.The contrast however in Africa is that the key people within the community are just contented to accept a bottle of Scottish Whiskey or Schnapps or local spirit over a businessdeal. Ghana needs to get a grip of how best our laws would work for us if we involve businesses co-operation into helping with our community developments. Understanding how international law works and how it can be used to further both national and international CSR objectives. 1. 3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The mobile telecommunication industry in this country has increased tremendously and continuously growing at a very high speed over the past ten years.The researcher’s aim is to throw more light on the real impact of this industry on the economy through their social activities. The research also works towards assessing whether or not the individual activities are achieving their desired impact on society. The view of the public is also a major concern to the researcher. This research is to find out the level of recognition the mobile telecommunication industries receive for their social activities and also to identify the level of benefits they receive in terms of increasing customer base and overall image of the industry upon undertaking such corporate social responsibility.1. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The significance and contribution of the mobile telecommunication industry in this country cannot be over emphasized. The main aim of this study was to assess the level of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) practices by the Mobile Telecommunication Industry in the country. * This study sought to ascertain and document the extent of recognition and appreciation, nature and content of socially responsible actions by mobile telecommunication firms located in Ghana. * Based on this study the researcher anticipates that the information they have provided will be beneficial to the government and policy makers. Another motive for this research is to helping the industry be more aware of their CSR and acknowledge its importance to not only their image and customer base, but also as a major contributing factor towards economic development.* This study will interest students, academics and practitioners who might be undertaking furthe r research on issues relating to the topic. | 1. 5 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY * To outline the social, economic and political factors driving the development and implementation of CSR of the mobile telecommunication industry Ghana. The study is to identify the contributions of mobile telecommunication network towards social and economic development with specific reference to MTN. * To assess the challenges they go through in complying with the expectation of the society * To address the contested nature of CSR, in particular in terms of its instrumental or normative value. * To assess individuals notions of the role and nature of corporations with respect to corporate social responsibility. 1. 6 RESEARCH QUESTINE * What are the corporate social responsibility activities undertaken by mobile telecommunication agencies? To what extent, and in what way can or should mobile corporations be held morally responsible?* Is there a significant contribution of CSR towards economic development? * Are their CSR activities a strategy for distinguishing and protecting their image and creating trust, and to attract and retain both potential employees and consumers? * Are the benefits of their contributions worth the harm they may be causing to the societies? * Are they giving back enough to the society relative to what they are receiving? * Are the people satisfied with their services and contributions? . 7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY Primary and secondary data was used as a source of information. The researchers also had to design proposed questionnaires to access information from the users of the mobile industry concerning their opinions, this was however done randomly.The research is aimed at assessing the nature and content of the corporate social responsibility activities undertaken by the various organizations within the telecommunication industry and its contribution to the society and in turn the economy of the nation. . 8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY Some of the limitations of this study included; * Lack of sufficient information; This was as a result of the reluctance of officers within the industry to give out all the information required for the research. * Time factor; The combination of academic demands i. e. Lectures and exams with the working on this project made the period of submission quiet short for undertaking all the requirements for assessing information for the study. 1. 9 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDYThis research is presented in 5 chapters with subdivisions. * Chapter 1 begins with an introduction to the topic stating its relevance, the background study, statement of the problem, research question, and objective of the study, significance of the study and scope and limitation. * Chapter 2 outlines the literature review :definition and explanation of terms, nature of Social responsibility, levels and dimensions of social responsibility, problems associated with social responsibilities, Chapter 3 tackle the Theoretical Review of the research, which comprises of the population, sample and sampling procedures,Research instrument , Administration of instrument and method of data Analysis. * Chapter 4 relates to the Empirical Review, which contains a brief historical background of the individual mobile telecommunication industries in Ghana, types of social responsibility activities in which they engage themselves into, effects of such activities on their customer base and profitability, problems encountered while undertaking/for filing their social responsibility Chapter 5 deals with presentation of findings, this consists of findings and summary, and conclusion of findings and recommendations. 1. 10 DEFINITION OF TERMS Ten CSR Themes Social Responsibility Agreements, Ghana Drivers of and Constraints to PRIVATE Sector Engagement

Rationality, Educated Opinion and Peace Essay

Abstract: This paper addresses the relevance of interwar thought to the building of peace through examining the ideas of three important writers of the period: Edward Hallett Carr, Norman Angell and Alfred Zimmern. The role of public opinion was under much query in the politics of the period they wrote in, and crucial to this issue are the questions as to whether the public mind is rational and capable of reason. These writers are concerned with the influence of public opinion and believe that through educating the public mind, the possibility of peace can be increased. Drawing from their ideas, this paper thus postulates that peace is a product of rationality and there is possibility of progress through education. The birth of international relations as a separate discipline was founded against the context of the interwar years, which brought about important consequences for the subsequent development of the interwar years. The tensions prior to and the subsequent devastation of the Great War forced intellectuals of the early twentieth century to seek explanations for the causes of war and to postulate measures by which another catastrophe could be prevented. The general psyche of the people exerted an influence on the direction of international studies. As David Long points out, the academic study of international affairs during this period of time possessed â€Å"a normative though not necessarily utopian interest in the avoidance of war†1. Such a trend is manifested in the trust deed of the Wilson Chair of International Politics (one of the first few schools of the discipline), which states that international politics is the â€Å"political science in its application to international relations with special reference to the best means of promoting peace between nations.†2 Woodrow Wilson, being a leading statesman at the time, presents one of the possible avenues for peace. He consciously and deliberately tied issues of foreign policy to domestic politics, giving rise to what will come to be known as the â€Å"democratic peace thesis†. Wilson advocates the belief that â€Å"popular participation, public life and opportunity for all [will be] the guarantee of peace†. Wilson believed that diplomacy and foreign policy must be taken with regard to public opinion and the public being rational would prefer peace to war.3 The crucial premise here is that public opinion matters in a democratic political system. The assumption further made is that the political leaders are sensitive to public opinion and will be susceptible to their demands. The issue of public opinion gives rise to another set of issues, and one of the foremost in this period, is the skepticism that the basic assumption of a rational public rejecting war is true. Is the public rational? Is war a rational choice? The political definition of rationality is the ability of the public to discern the options open to them, and to adopt the best option to achieve their prioritized goals. The Great War cast doubts as to whether public is necessarily aware of what their options and goals are, much less their ability to choose the best option to fit their preferred purpose. As historian A. J. P. Taylor argues that the intellectual backlash against the dehumanizing war made the interwar years an â€Å"age of intellectual and artistic activity†, where intellectuals from various fields of study question the power of man to reason.4 The devastation of war brings queries, particularly from the idealists, as to whether war can be a rational choice. Even if the assumption holds true, there is still the question as to whether public opinion has any weight on policy formulation. Given this particular context, this paper questions the foundations of Wilsonian politics. This paper will thus postulate on the influence of public opinion and the impact of rationality on the maintenance of peace by drawing from the ideas of three important writers of this period: Edward Hallett Carr, Norman Angell and Alfred Zimmern. This paper will first introduce the positions of all three writers. It will then examine the fundamental assumption shared by all three writers with respect to public opinion, before expounding on their arguments on the rationality of the public and why the issue matters. The paper will then look into the possibilities of peace, and how the three concur on the issue of education. Due to source constraints, this paper will draw on secondary references to the works of the three writers, where the primary sources are not available. Carr, Angell and Zimmern Peter Wilson in Thinkers of the Twenty Years’ Crisis introduces Carr’s book as â€Å"a work which not only set the tone for subsequent discussion of inter-war thought, but also substantially shaped postwar attitudes towards it.†5 The premise for The Twenty Years’ Crisis is the critique of inter-war idealism, which Carr terms ‘utopian’6. Carr dismisses the ‘utopians’ as being unable to understand political reality and sets up a dichotomy that supposes â€Å"utopia: reality= free will: determinism= theory: practice= morality: power =universal: relative= intellectual: bureaucrat= Left: Right† 7 The dichotomy presented by Carr undermines interwar idealism, and leads, in part, to the rejection of the practical value of these theories. This dichotomy shapes subsequent debate and is consequentially identified as the polarity of realism and idealism, which will dominate international studies for the next few decades. In order to posit queries of the dichotomy, it is first necessary to expound on the assumptions that are conventionally made of either school. Brian C. Schmidt summarises the assumptions of idealism as follows : a pervasive faith in reason and rationalism, a belief in the infallibility of public opinion, the view that war was irrational, that the best way to end conflict was through education, international law, and world government, and, finally, a belief that the essential harmony of interests existed, which translated into the international doctrine of â€Å"war-does-not-pay8. Superficially, both Norman Angell and Alfred Zimmern adopt such assumptions in their writings. Significantly, both Angell and Zimmern share the same devotion to one key tenet: the possibility of progress through educating public opinion and conditioning human behaviour. Their devotion to the tenet became stronger later into their careers, especially after the Second World War. The realist school of thought as represented by Carr, refutes the idealist assumptions. In particular, the realists argue that the concept of ‘power’ is central to international affairs. Carr adopts Thomas Hobbes’ argument on human nature and advances the argument that the state as a rational actor will choose to maximize its capacity for power in order to secure its survival. He argues that public opinion, even when informed, is not necessarily pacifist and that thought can be mould by political purposes. Through defining his position by rejecting and critiquing the idealists assumptions, Carr’s realist position is thus seen as the diametric opposite of the idealists. It is then necessary to redress both the ideas of Carr and the much-maligned interwar idealists, among whom are Zimmern and Angell. The choice of juxtaposing Angell and Zimmern with Carr in this paper is conscious. Both Zimmern and Angell are among the few ‘utopians’ whom Carr explicitly criticizes in The Twenty Years’ Crisis. Andreas Osiander points out that Zimmern is â€Å"still widely regarded as what Oslon and Groom have called the ‘consummate’ idealist†9, and is thus identifiable with the idealist school of thought. Yet Zimmern, as Paul Rich and Peter Wilson suggest, is considerably less adverse to Carr’s ideas than his idealist colleagues.10 Angell, on the other hand, is one of the fiercest adversaries to The Twenty Years’ Crisis, but J. D. Miller raises the argument that â€Å"Angell should†¦ be regarded less as an idealist than a far sighted realist† because of his â€Å"acute awareness† of the issues o f political reality11. The interplay of their ideas then calls to question the validity of a clear dichotomy. In essence then, this paper seek to question if the positions of these writers on the assumptions raised by Schmidt are as concrete as they appear to be. In other words, this paper examines the complexities of Carr, Angell and Zimmern’s ideas on the applicability of public opinion, rationality and possibilities of peace. On closer examination, this paper argues that despite the differences, the three share a fundamental similarity: the belief in progress. The dichotomy between the realists and idealists is permeable, and in their postulation of the long term, the arguments of Carr, Angell and Zimmern coincide. Public Opinion First and foremost, the underlying assumption that Carr, Angell and Zimmern adopt is that public opinion matters, even though their understanding of public opinion differs. Zimmern argues that â€Å"[p]ublic opinion is the lifeblood of a civilized community† but unfortunately, the majority of the peoples is guided by â€Å"caprice of ignorance, passion or greed, and the other devils if unreason.†12 The title of Carr’s inaugural speech at the University College of Wales, â€Å"Public Opinion as a Safeguard of Peace† says much. Carr argues that public opinion can exert tremendous influence over a foreign policy issue that it feels sufficiently strongly about, using the case of the public rejection of the Hoare-Laval plan to build his case. He states that, â€Å"No nation, and least of all a democracy, can wage war unless it has the support of an overwhelming majority of its people†13. The implication of such a statement in light of guarding the peace is that insofar as the public is not in favour of war, a state and particularly a democratic state will not and cannot adopt war as a policy instrument. Angell’s Nobel Lecture, â€Å"Peace and the Public Mind†, adopts the same position, except that he argues public opinion, being misinformed and â€Å"disastrously erroneous† can lead to war. 14 Interestingly both Angell and Carr argue that public opinion is easily manipulated. Carr devotes a section to â€Å"Power over opinion† in The Twenty Years’ Crisis, suggesting that the greater proportion of public becoming conscious or involved in politics relates to the importance that the ruling elite place on propaganda as an instrument of power. The influence of propaganda rests on the premise he sets earlier in the book that the crucial contribution of realism is the idea that thought is relative to purpose. 15 For instance, nationalism, as a form of ideology, could be seen as a means by which the public can be persuaded to go to war. Similarly, Angell contends that a small militant minority is capable of appealing to the majority towards a policy that may not be in the majority’s best interests.16 Rationality Having established that public opinion has a role to play, we then move on to the crucial questions: is the public rational, and is war a rational choice? On both issues, there are significant differences between Carr and the idealists, arising from the difference in the way they interpret and infer from past and current events. Reason and rationality give rise to different outcomes for Carr and the idealists. An important observation is that Carr places more faith in reason and rationality than do the others, contrary to our earlier presupposition that it is the idealists who have a â€Å"pervasive faith in reason and rationalism.† A proper definition of what is meant by rational behaviour has yet to be provided as a premise for argument. To proceed, we adopt James Mill’s argument for the rational public opinion quoted in Carr as a guide to what rational behaviour entails: Every man possessed of reason is accustomed to weigh evidence and to be guided and determined by its preponderance. When various conclusions are, with their evidence presented with equal care and with equal skill, there is a moral certainty, though some few maybe misguided, that greatest number will judge right, and the greatest force of evidence, whatever it is, will produce the greatest impression. 17 Whereas Carr believes that the public, being self-interested, is capable of defining their goals and seeking the best possible means to achieve toward that end, he rejects Mills’ definition of rational behaviour. Mills’ definition is in turn based on the ideas espoused by Jeremy Betham who assumes that the ideal option is the â€Å"greatest good to the greatest number†. Carr argues that public opinion comes from the masses, who are for large part, neither enlightened nor educated and thus â€Å"the greatest number† need not necessarily â€Å"judge right†. He argues that Betham and Mills’ assumption that self-interest can be sacrificed for the sake of â€Å"the greatest good† to the collective is based on â€Å"some kind of intuition of what is right and cannot be demonstrated by rational argument.†18 Carr suggests, instead, that rational necessarily demands a consciousness and the ability to adjust to the balance of power existing in international affairs, which serves as a constraint on the options available. The discerning public thus does not only take into account what is right, but also what is most practical in catering to self-interest. Carr then adopts an argument that is parallel to Thomas Hobbes’. Hobbes, in Leviathan, states the fundamental law of nature as: it is a precept, or general rule of reason that every man, ought to endeavour peace, as far as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek, and use all helps, and advantages of war Carr comments, to the same effect, that although war is undesirable, it is not possible to impose an absolute judgement that war is â€Å"always and unconditionally wrong.† The implication of Hobbes and Carr’s argument is that the public being rational favours peace. However, when the public believes that they have more to gain from war, or more to lose from not going to war, war becomes a rational and logical solution. Historically, Carr’s argument seems to find sufficient basis in the outbreak of World War I. One of the reasons contributing to the war was the increase in bellicosity, arising from rationalization of cost and benefit or cooperation and non-cooperation. Prior to the Great War, the perceived cost of non-cooperation19 had decreased. The perception was influenced by beliefs that any war would be short, a consequence of â€Å"a highly exaggerated faith in the efficacy of offensive military strategies and tactics†20 and by the system of alliances. The perception was further coloured by nationalism. Secondly the perceived gains of non-cooperation had increased. The general belief was that expansionism and offensive foreign policy was perceived to be too high, due to the general suspicion of the intentions of the other states. Given these perceptions then prevalent, European states saw it to their advantage to go to war, and in fact to initiate the war so as to reap the greate st advantage of the ground. This international game theory exemplifies in part the rational process that Carr espoused. The idealists depart greatly from Carr. Angell and Zimmern accept that Mills’ definition is greatly desired but finds it incongruent with political reality. Reus-Smit, in his essay â€Å"The Strange Death of Liberal Theory†, argues that the conflict between morality and political reality is seen by Angell as a divide between â€Å"reason and unreason†. He argues that, â€Å"If the former prevailed, there was some hope of a reconciliation between morality, defined as the well-being of all and reality, which in [Angell’s] favoured area was the incompatibility of warfare and such well-being.21† However, within the historical context, Angell believes that ‘unreason’ prevailed. Angell believes that the public mind is often irrational, because it is too easily persuaded; it does not possess sufficient information, nor the ability to process vast amounts of information when it is available and it lacks the skill to seek evidence for the variou s conclusions, as Mill points out, i.e., it cannot â€Å"see the likely results of actions.† 22 The public mind cannot compute cost-benefit-analysis, which is central to rationalization. Angell accounts for this irrationality of the public mind, stating that it arises from the â€Å"failure to apply to our international relationships knowledge which is of practically universal possession†23 In Angell’s opinion then, it is not for the lack of intellectual capacity on the part of the public that lead to the irrational behaviour, but the inability to apply knowledge. Resting on his idea of the irrational public, Angell expounds on the war and why the public’s choice to go to war is actually irrational. In his aptly named book, The Great Illusion, he puts forth a convincing argument on the futility of war on grounds of rationality and economic considerations. Angell argues that the perceived benefits of war under modern circumstances, are reduced, as victors can no longer expect to benefit as much from the spoils of war. The change is largely because goods and spoils are no longer portable (such as gold, silver, slaves, precious stones) as they had before. Goods and services are non-physical such as currency, shares, and fixed assets, and are thus not transferable wealth. As such, if states act purely in their self-interest, given the expectation not to gain from war, states would be unlikely to pursue war.24 Angell considers this line of reasoning to be simplistic and easily applicable to the conduct of international relations. Yet as the advent of World War I proves, the public is incapable of applying such rationale to political practice. Angell argues that the pervading reasons behind war, then, are irrational. Not only does war not serve to the benefit of the state concerned, better alternatives of action could be sought such as building economic relations, social interaction. Such connections can be used in persuading, as opposed to coercing, other states into behaving in the manner that is beneficial to the state concerned. Thus the argument adopted is that war is irrational, i.e. not the best-laid option, and man being irrational and susceptible to external influences, chooses to use war as a policy instrument. Andreas Osiander points out that â€Å"unlike what Carr implies, Zimmern, like Angell, was very far from seeing public opinion as necessarily a force for peace.25† Like Angell, he believes that the conflicts in the international arena, giving rise to war are resultant of intellectual, and not political failure.26 However, if Carr is to be believed, Zimmern can, in fact, be seen as being more extreme than Angell. Carr states in The Twenty Years Crisis that Zimmern is inclined towards the hypothesis that â€Å"If mankind in its international relations has signally failed to achieve the rational good, it must †¦ have been too stupid to understand that good.† Carr’s statement is not altogether justified. Although Zimmern does point out that the impediment to overcoming the obstacle towards peace is that man â€Å"are beings of conservative temper and limited intelligence27†, what he implies is that man is reluctant to adjust to present realities brought b y modernity. As a result of the inherent resistance towards change, man’s mental capacity does not adapt to the fact that previous ways of managing international relations are no longer applicable. Consequentially, public opinion cannot be trusted to be rational. Zimmern subscribes to John Stuart Mill’s argument of the â€Å"tyranny of the majority†. He argues that the ruling elite, that is, the politicians in positions of power tend to be capable of rationalization. However this intellectual minority in government is consumed by the irrational public: â€Å"for statesmen, however wise and far sighted, are limited in their policies by the public opinion and parliaments to which they are responsible.28† Angell concurs on this issue. J. D. Miller, drawing from Angell’s comments, argues that Angell too â€Å"feared the impact upon politicians of an unreasoning crowd mind, and doubted the capacity of politicians to resist it†. Both Angell and Zimmern, then, prefer that the intellectual minority be given the ability and power to lead the rest of the populace, so as to govern rational foreign policies. In this regard, Carr again differs. Whereas Carr does agree that the intellectual minority has a role to play in leading public opinion,29 he believes that the intellectual minority is however, sadly, out of touch with reality. He argues his case by drawing on the difference between intellectuals’ perceptions of the League of Nations with those of the man on the street. The intellectuals, who tend to be idealists by his definition, strive to secure and maintain peace via means of treaties, covenants and legal codifications. The general public, however, is more concerned with the practice of international affairs (as opposed to the theory.) Going by Carr’s understanding of rational behaviour to be taking into account what is right and also what is most practical in application, the intellectual mi nority is in practice less rational than the public. Change and the possibility of progress As it is, there seems to be a great divide between Carr and his two contemporaries with regards to whether man is rational. However, central to their arguments is the shared belief that history is a directional process, that is, there is the idea of constant change. Carr argues that war occurs because of the conservative reluctance to allow change to the status quo and the way to peace is to provide means of peaceful change.30 Angell and Zimmern suggest that war occurs because man has yet to come to terms with change, and that the mentality and psyche of the populace has not kept in line with international developments. As Zimmern states, â€Å"the statesmen and the peoples have not adjusted their minds to the new realities†31. The central concern with the issue of change harkens to a broader issue on which the three writers concur: the possibility of progress. The interwar context is one of pessimism. The first decade had been one of recovery and rehabilitation from the shock of the Great War and the second decade of mounting tensions and escalation to an even more disastrous war. The context in which these writers write in, therefore, begets the question of whether man can move away from destruction of war, and by what means. The three writers agree that the current situation calls for change, as present movements and measures to maintain peace are insufficient and inadequate, and are reasonably optimistic that such change can be effected. Carr notes even in 1936 that, â€Å"the cause of peace has made tremendous stride during the past fifteen years and shows his preference towards progressive history, arguing that â€Å"a sense of change as a progressive factor in history, and belief in reason as our guide for the understanding of its complexities† are crucial to the current world. Angell is of the same mind when he questions the unchangeability of human nature and argues that just as cannibalism and slavery can be systematically reduced in our society, so too can the warlike nature of man and states32. Zimmern, even when decrying the decline of international standards (which he defined as rules of behaviour) at a meeting at Chatham House in 1937 argues that the process of change allowing for pea ceful coexistence was already taking place.33 The ultimate aim of change is the maintenance of peace, which is assumed to be the preferred good, through the avoidance of war. The question that is then posited is, by what means? Carr, Angell and Zimmern propose different measures but the one pertinent to the prior argument on public opinion and rationality is their faith in education. Due to their fundamental belief that public opinion matters, it is logical to argue that if the public mind, as Angell would call it, could be trained and conditioned to favour ‘peaceful change’, then the chances of states going to war would be minimized. Angell quotes in his The Great Illusion that â€Å"Not the facts, but men’s opinions about the facts is what matters†, and making a parallel with the abolishment of witch hunts, he comments that â€Å"just as in the matter of burning witches a change of behaviour was the outcome of a change of opinion†¦ in a same way a change in the political conduct of can only com e about as a result of a change of thought†34. The way to peace then is to shape man’s perceptions about war. Given this understanding, the most basic and possibly most efficient way of bringing about this conditioned public is through education. However in his address given to Chatham House in 1931, Angell claims that the current education system does not adequately prepare the individual to make intelligent and informed inferences from the facts presented to him. He believes that the reason behind this lack in the system is that education tends to follow a tradition whereby an older generation influences and instruct the younger through a process of socialization.35 Unfortunately this tradition means that values and ideas that are taught are often unable to catch up with present realities. The educational system had also focused on provision of information, without equipping the individual with means to discern the motivations, the causation analysis, the implications et cetera behind the piece of information. According to him, â€Å"We have thought too much of the facts and too little of their meaning.† 36 Thus the socialization/education of an individual does not adequately provide him with the skill to make rational choices. Given his premise that war is irrational under any circumstances lest in defence and a rational public will therefore reject war, the skill deficiency means that man may choose to go to war due to their lack of understanding, unless the educational system can be changed. Beyond the suggestion that education shifts its focus from its informational purpose towards equipping successive generations with the skill to possess information, Angell does not however provide for how education can be otherwise structured. Zimmern elaborates on his ideal educational system in his book Learning and Leadership, which is not only designed to impart the skill of discerning information but also specifically equipped to teach students about international life. Particularly, he believes that practical experience through interaction with people from other nations will allow students to imbibe the habit of cooperation and harmonious living37. Zimmern believes that once people are given more exposure to the international arena, they will be able to understand foreigners and foreign influences better and become more acutely aware of the idea of universal brotherhood. This basic premise being established, man will be more able to understand the actions of others, less inclined to take preemptive action and to go to war. The assumption of such an argument is that people are less inclined to advocate war against a party that they share an understanding with. Education is thus seen as an instrument which can build commonality among peoples, as well as a means by which the public can be trained to be rational. In The Twenty Years’ Crisis, Carr argues for the application of reason to understanding current situations and political reality; in his later work What is History he extends the role of reason to the capacity to reform: The primary function of reason, as applied to man in society, is no longer merely to investigate, but to transform; and this heightened consciousness of the power of men to improve the management of his social, economic and political affairs by the application of rational processes seems to me one of the major aspects of the twentieth century. 38 The core assumptions here are that reason leads to progress and progress is necessarily an improvement. Remembering the key concern of the study of international relations in the interwar period, a foremost improvement of the human condition is the eradication of war. As do Angell and Zimmern, Carr believes that education was to be the tool by which such improvement can come about. However, unlike Zimmern and Angell who believe that the public has to be thought how to make rational choices in the first place, Carr believes that education can be used to shape the way the public thinks about their choices. Carr notes then that education policy must be shaped: Educators at all levels are nowadays more and more consciously concerned to make their contribution to the shaping of society in a particular mould, and to inculcate in the rising generation the attitudes, loyalties and opinions appropriate to that type of society: educational policy is an integral part of any rationally planned social policy.39 It is then assumed, that rationally, a society will be prefer not to resort to war in a conflict of interest, and a means by which this can be ensured is to design an educational system which, in the context of the interwar years, should imbue in them the moral norm that ‘peaceful change’ is the preferred means of achieving policy objectives. To put it more plainly, Carr’s ideal is using education to persuade man against the doctrine of power, providing a basis whereby a compromise between morality and power can be reached and peaceful change achieved. In his contention that thought is relative to purpose, Carr postulates that mass opinion can directed and in fact ‘mass-produced’ via ‘universal popular education’. It is imperative to note that by popular education, Carr has included the mass media.( Carr does not, however differentiate between education and propaganda in The Twenty Years’ Crisis though in What is History, he associates education with rationality and the â€Å"growing consciousness from below as well as from above of the role which reason can play†40). The application of reason and rationality therefore means that education can be used to persuade mankind against war. Instead of making an argument that war is irrational, educators can influence the public into making a conscious choice not to use war as a policy instrument. As Carr states, â€Å"I regard as of immense importance and promise the gradual extension of the area of the world’s surface within which war has been effectively been placed under the ban,† such that war is actually unthinkable41. What becomes interesting is how closely Carr mirrors the ‘utopians’ he derides. Peter Wilson, in his attempt to understand what Carr means by ‘utopian’, lists the various characteristics that Carr associates with the term. According to his analysis, all of these characteristics are † ‘progressive ideas’; and it might be therefore be concluded that the core characteristic of interwar idealism is belief in conscious, progressive change†. On this basis, Carr does not seem to be any much different, which recalls Reus-Smit’s observation quoted earlier in this paper that Carr is himself not a consummate realist. It is also possible to put forth an argument that Carr’s argument against utopianism was never meant to be an outright and unconditional rejection of the interwar theories. Conclusion Whether or not these three writers think the public mind is rational depends largely on whether they believe war can be a rational choice, and yet regardless of their perspectives on these two issues, they believe that progress towards avoidance of war can be ensured through changing human behaviour. Education policies thus become important, as they can shape the perceptions of the public and thus affect their choices, which is in turn reflected in the chosen foreign policy. However there is a point to note based on this argument set. All three writers are writing within a democratic framework and tradition, where by definition, requires that public opinion matters. Yet, public opinion is less likely to make an impact in an authoritarian state, and even in democratic states, there is the consideration of public apathy, the leaders gambling and taking risks by not going according to public opinion, et cetera. These complications bring us back to the consideration of Wilsonian politics. Woodrow Wilson professes that his aim is to make the world safe for democracy, and that democracy will bring peace. His tendency has been to look at the building and maintenance of peace from a top down approach, where the political structure and political ideological apparatus are enforced. In other words, he looks to providing a mechanism which will allow the rational public to prevent the tendencies of the militant minority from dragging the state to war. However, from the ideas of Carr, Angell and Zimmern, such a mechanism would not function effectively against war unless the public mind can be first conditioned through a fitting educational system emphasizing co-operation and peace. 1 David Long, â€Å"Conclusion: Interwar idealism, liberal internationalism and contemporary international theory†. Thinkers of the Twenty Years’ Crisis: Inter-war idealism reassessed. p. 303, pp. 306-307. 2 Quoted in E. H. Carr’s inaugural speech in the University College of Wales. â€Å"Public Opinion as a Safeguard of Peace† International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1931-1939). Vol. 15. No. 6. (Nov- Dec 1936), p. 846. 3 Mortimer Chambers, et al. The Western Experience Vol C: The Modern Era. pp. 892-893 4 A. J. P. Taylor, From Sarajevo to Potsdam. London: Thames & Hudson: 1966 pp. 103-106 5 Peter Wilson. â€Å"Introduction: The Twenty Years’ Crisis and the Category of ‘Idealism’ in International Relations†. David Long & Peter Wilson. (ed.) Thinkers of the Twenty Years’ Crisis: Inter-war idealism reassessed. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 1995. p.1 6 Carr’s term ‘utopians’ is generally taken to refer to the idealists, though he does not clearly define who he considers to be utopians. 7 Wilson, â€Å"Introduction†, p. 12. Wilson adapted the equation from Hedley Bull, â€Å"The Twenty Crisis Thirty Years On†, International Journal, Issue 24, Vol. 4 (1969), p. 627-8. E. H. Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis: 1919-1939. New York: Harper: (1946) 1964. pp. 11-21. 8 Brian C. Schmidt. â€Å"Lessons from the Past: reassessing the Interwar Disciplinary History of International Relations†. International Studies Quarterly (1998) 42. p 452 9 Andreas Osiander, â€Å"Rereading Early Twentieth Century IR theory: Idealism Revisited†, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 42, No. 3 (Sep.,1998). p. 417 10 Paul Rich, â€Å"Alfred Zimmern’s Catious Idealism: the League of Nations, International Education, and the Commonwealth†. Thinkers of the Twenty Years’ Crisis: Inter-war idealism reassessed. p.88; Peter Wilson, â€Å"Carr and his Early Crtics: responses to the Twenty Years’ Crisis†. Michael Cox (ed). E. H. Carr: A critical appraisal. New York: Palgrave: 2000. p. 167. 11 J. D. Miller. â€Å"Norman Angell and Rationality in International Relations†. Thinkers of the Twenty Years’ Crisis: Inter-war idealism reassessed. pp. 116, 119. 12 Alfred Zimmern, Learning and Leadership: a study of the needs and possibilities of international intellectual co-operation. London: Oxford University Press: 1928. p. 10; p. 82. 13 Carr, â€Å"Public Opinion as a Safeguard of Peace† pp. 857-858. 14 Norman Angell, Peace and the Public Mind. June 12, 1935. http://www.nobel.se/cgi-bin/print. March 24, 2004. 15 E. H. Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis. pp. 132-133; pp. 67-75 16 Norman Angell Peace and the Public Mind. para. 19 17 quoted in E. H. Carr, The Twenty Years Crisis. p 24. 18 Ibid. p. 26; p. 41 19 The line of reasoning here is tied to the idea of an international game theory, which due to practical constraints cannot be covered here. The argument is made in line with Robert Jervis theory on international behaviour in his â€Å"Cooperation Under Security Dilemma† World Politics. Vol. 30, No. 2 (Jan, 1978), pp.167-214. 20 Stephen van Evera, â€Å"Why co-operation failed in 1914†. World Politics, Vol. 38. No. 1 (Oct, 1985). p. 81 21 Christian Reus-Smit, â€Å"The Strange Death of Liberal International Theory†. European Journal of International Law. Vol. 12. No. 3. pp. 578-9. 22 J. D. Miller. Norman Angell and the Futility of War: Peace and the public mind. London: Macmillian: 1986. pp/ 124-125. 23 Norman Angell. Peace and the Public mind. para. 17 24 Norman Angell. Europe’s Optical Illusion. London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent , 1909(?)24-40; The Great Illusion:A study of the relation of military power to national advantage. London: William Heinemann 1913. pp. 26-40. 25 Andreas Osiander, â€Å"Rereading Early Twentieth Century IR theory† p. 417 26 Alfred Zimmern, Learning and Leadership. p. 11. 27 Alfred Zimmern, â€Å"The Problem with Collective Security† (ed) Q. Wright. Neutrality and Collective Security. Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 1936. p. 8. 28 Ibid. 29 E. H. Carr, â€Å"Public Opinion as a Safeguard of Peace†. p. 854. 30 E. H. Carr. The Twenty Years Crisis. pp. 208-223 31 Alfred Zimmern Learning and Leadership. p. 22 32 Norman Angell, The Great Illusion. 1913. pp. 200-221. 33 Alfred Zimmern, â€Å"The Decline of International Standards†International Affiars (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1931-1939). Vol 17. No. 1 (Jan.-Feb. 1938), p. 21. 34 Norman Angell, The Great Illusion. P. 327 35 Norman Angell, â€Å"Popular Education and International Affairs† International Affairs (Royal Institute of International affairs 1931-1939) Vol. 11, No. 3 (May 1932), p. 323 36 Ibid, p 335-338, 338 37 Alfred Zimmern Learning and Leadership. p. 26-60 38 E. H. Carr. What is History? New York , St. Martin’s Press , 1961 p 190 39 Ibid. 40 Ibid p. 195. Propaganda is associated with the emotive and not with reason. 41 E. H. Carr. â€Å"Public Opinion as a Safeguard of Peace†. p. 861.

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Han Poems ( Chinese Poetry ) - Research Paper Example It is worthwhile to note that the Han dynasty led to the development of different poetic forms. Thirdly, China has the modern period poetry that is characterized by westernized free poetry structure (Maghiel Van Crevel 405). The Han poetry also known as classical poetry was developed during the Han period. This is the period during which, the Chu lyrics advanced and evolved into the fu lyric. In this lyrical pattern, a poem is simply in rhymed verse except for the introduction and the concluding passages, which are in prose. More often, the introductory and concluding parts of the poem are in the systematic form of questions and answers. This form is often referred to as poetic essay. For instance, Xi Kang’s Qin Fu is a perfect of the poetic form in this context. The Han poetry was also characterized by the yue fu poems (newpages.com). The yue fu poems are simply song lyrics that were inclusive of indigenous folk songs as well as, versions of renowned artists such as Li Bai. T he literary history of Chinese history was dominated by the fu genre which is a descriptive prose combined with verse. The Han period is described as an important cultural flowering age of the Chinese poetry. ... , the emergence of the Han poetry, Confucius has the credit of revolutionizing the Han poetry due to his effort in educating pupils on poetry by use of the book of songs whose impact on Chinese literature led to the undisputed success of the Chinese poetry. Undisputedly, the vigor and realism of the Han art inclusive of poetry is notably among the most sophisticated periods in Chinese lengthy history. Most people fond of art are curious to find out the founder of the Han poetry who is none other than Liu Pang. Liu Pang (forum.kungfumagazine.com). In a comprehensive detail, the Han poetry was written during the period dating back to 206 B.C-A.D.220. The Han dynasty lasted during this period. The form of writing was simply the â€Å"yuefu† style. A later period of the Eastern Han was characterized by poems, which were in the form of five characters in each line. The repetitive use of five characters in each line stood out as the distinguishable attribute that achieved melodious smoother effect evoking subtler human feelings. The Han poetry was written in the form of the fu genre until the classical period when it began to develop into the modern known as Shi form. In contrast to the fu genre, the Shi form has seven characters in each line. The Han poetry entailed the use of an adopted persona to address a wide range of topics in the ancient Chinese society (Maghiel Van Crevel 344). Concisely, the Han poetry is a reflection of the territorial expansion of China hence the purpose for which it was written was to record the history of China. During the Han period, China experienced a drastic development in knowledge, which led to its tremendous expansion linking it to other countries such as Syria, Iran and India. The Han poetry gives a detailed account of the sorrow filled,

Favorite Food Essay Example for Free

Favorite Food Essay Donny is estranged from his son, who, embarrassed by Donnys immaturity, has changed his name to Todd Peterson and managed to become a successful businessman. He has recently arrived at the Cape Cod house of his boss, where he is to be married to Jamie (Leighton Meester). Donny learns from his lawyer, Jim Nance, that he owes $43,000 to the IRS in back-taxes and will be imprisoned for three years if he doesnt repay the money by the end of the weekend. He visits TV producer Randall Morgan, who had produced shows for Donny during his brief period of celebrity, and Morgan offers him $50,000 if he can organize a reunion with Han and Mary McGarricle at the womens prison. Donny arrives at Cape Cod to try to convince Todd to participate. Because he had previously told people that his parents had died, Todd introduces Donny as an old friend; Donny elaborates with a heroic backstory and, despite his extremely crude behavior, quickly becomes well-liked by the other guests, at the expense of Todds popularity. Donny tries to convince Todd to come to the womens prison to see his mother, without revealing that it is for a tv show, but Todd refuses. Todd fights constantly with Donny about his fathers immaturity, both now and during his childhood. Donny admitted he was wrong for his actions and shouldve stopped him, but he didnt know how to be a father. Donny joins Todd and his friends at Todds bachelor party, a relaxing day at a spa. However, Donny offends the employees and guests and eventually convinces the wedding party to attend a strip club where Todd bonds with Brie. The group gets drunk and high and commits various acts of debauchery. Over the course of the evening, Todd bonds with his father and agrees to meet Mary McGarrigle at the prison. Donny, knowing that a tv crew will be waiting, tries to stop the meeting from happening, but Todd goes to the prison anyway. Todd, Donny, and Mary are ambushed by the film crew and a disgusted Todd leaves without signing a release form, leaving Donny without any money. Donny overhears Jamie on the phone saying that she has been having sex with Todds boss. He tries to warn Todd, but Jamie comes up with a convincing cover story. Later, Donny discovers Jamie having sex with her brother. She pays Donny the money he needs in order to keep him quiet. After receiving a conciliatory present from Todd, Donny decides that he has to stop the wedding. At the ceremony he reveals himself to be Todds father and rips up Jamies check, and forces her to admit her infidelity to Todd. A disgusted Todd breaks up with Jamie and quits his job, acknowledging Donny as his father and even taking back his birth name of Han Solo Berger. The following day at the strip club, Han reveals that he is dating Brie. He offers Donny the money to help pay for the unpaid taxes, but he refuses stating that its time for him to grow up and accept responsibility. Donny is preparing to go to prison when a bet he placed wins him enough money to satisfy the IRS. The film ends with Donny and Todd celebrating with the rest of their friends.

Tetracycline: History, Properties and Uses

Tetracycline: History, Properties and Uses Discovery and development of antibiotics-tetracycline Introduction An antibiotic is a single or a group of substances normally obtained from micro-organisms that block the development of a certain different micro-organisms or even destroy them. They are obtained from extraordinary microorganisms or other living frameworks, and are delivered by a modern method utilizing an ageing process. In spite of the fact that the standards of antibiotic activity were not found until the twentieth century, the first known utilization of antibiotic was from the Chinese more than 2,500 years back. Today, more than 10,000 anti-microbial substances have been accounted for. Right now, antibiotics are a billion dollar industry that keeps on growing every year.The variety of antibiotics presently available can be grouped by different methods like the chemical structure they are made of, the micro-organisms from which they are obtained, or the action they perform. They can also be designated by their range of action, e.g., Tetracycline, cephalosporin, polymixin etc. Tetracyclines It is a wide range polyketide antibiotic derived by the Streptomyces sort of Actinobacteria. [5]This is used against numerous bacterial diseases. It is a protein amalgamation inhibitor and is usually used to treat skin inflammation, rosacea, urinary tract infections and is truly imperative in decreasing the number of deaths from cholera. The term tetracycline is additionally used to indicate the four-ring arrangement of this compound; tetracyclines are connected substances that contain the same four-ring framework. http://www.explorecuriocity.org/portals/2/Symposia/Antibiotics/_2993.jpg http://cdni.wired.co.uk/19201280/a_c/antibiotics.jpg https://www.fredhutch.org/en/news/center-news/2004/03/infection-protection/_jcr_content/articletext/imageplus/image.img.jpg/1321308084306.jpg The discovery In spite of the fact that for a considerable length of time preparations derived from living organisms were applied to wounds to eradicate or remove diseases or ailments, the way that a microorganism is equipped for destroying one of other animal types was not proved until the last of the 19th century. The tetracycline, an expansive group of anti-infective agents, was founded as an ordinary item by Benjamin Minge Duggar in 1945 and initially endorsed in 1948.Under Yellapragada Subbarow, Benjamin Duggar made his discovery of the first tetracycline antibiotic- chlortetracycline (Aureomycin), at Lederle Laboratories in 1945. [9] In 1950, Harvard University teacher Robert Burns Woodward decided the compound structure of the related substance, Oxytetracycline (Terramycin); the patent security for its fermentation and generation was additionally initially issued in 1950. [8]An examination group of eight researchers (K.J. Burnings, Francis A. Hochstein, Frederick J. Pioneer C.R. Stephens, Lloyd Hillyard Conover, Abraham Bavley, Richard Pasternack, and Peter P. Regna) at Pfizeras ,a team with Woodward, took an interest in the two-year examination prompting the discovery. https://www.nzytech.com/site/components/com_virtuemart/shop_image/product/98d518eb90428466f73c1e04551cf1e7.jpg http://thescienceofacne.com/wp-content/uploads/Tetracycline-Sumycin-Molecule-640404.jpg?a355a6 https://edc2.healthtap.com/ht-staging/user_answer/avatars/1560705/large/open-uri20131228-9945-h4ifng.jpeg?1388269653 Development of antibiotics Antibiotics are made in the industry by a procedure of fermentation, where the source microorganism is developed in substantial holders (100,000 – 150,000 liters or additionally) containing a fluid development medium. The concentration of oxygen, degree of temperature, pH of the medium, and supplement levels must be idealistic and are closely observed and balanced if important. As antibiotics are optional metabolites, the population size must be controlled deliberately to guarantee that most extreme yield is acquired before the cells dies. When the procedure is finished, the antibiotic must be removed and decontaminated to a crystalline item.This is less difficult to accomplish if the antibiotic is dissolved in natural solvent. Else, it should first be uprooted by ion exchange, adsorbed, or precipitated on a chemical. Discovery of tetracycline Chlortetracycline and Oxytetracycline, both found in the late 1940s, were the first members from the tetracycline group to be portrayed.[4]These particles were results of Streptomyces aureofaciens and S. rimosus, individually. Different tetracyclines were distinguished later, either as characteristically happening atoms, e.g., tetracycline from S. aureofaciens, S. rimosus, and S. viridofaciens and demethylchlortetracycline from S. aureofaciens, or as results of semisynthetic methodologies, e.g., methacycline, doxycycline, and minocycline. In spite of the achievement of the early tetracyclines, analogs were looking for with an enhanced water solubility either to permit parenteral organization or to improve oral assimilation. These methodologies brought about the advancement of the semisynthetic mixes rolitetracycline and lymecycline. The most of late found tetracyclines are the semisynthetic collections alluded to as glycylcyclines, e.g., 9-(N, N-dimethylglycylamido) -6-demethyl-6-deo xytetracycline, 9-(N, N-dimethylglycylamido) -minocycline, and 9-t-(butylglycylamido) -minocycline.[12] These mixes have a 9-glycylamido substitution. .[11] The 9-t-butylglycylamido subordinate of minocycline (tigilcycline; once known as GAR-936) started stage- I in October 1999 and is as of now experiencing stage- II clinical trials. A portion of the prior mixes, e.g., clomocycline, are no more showcased, and others, e.g., rolitetracycline, lymecycline, and chlortetracycline, are not accessed. http://openi.nlm.nih.gov/imgs/512/272/2823312/2823312_ORT-1745-3674-80-693-g003.png http://media.i24news.tv/upload/cache/medium_image/upload/image/afp-ba034f876ea09e71954f1fda34f7c26ad79be9e6.jpg http://dailysciencejournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/bug.jpg Safety and environmental issues of the production and the product itself The large scale manufacturing of antibiotics started amidst World War II with streptomycin and penicillin. Presently, most antimicrobial agents are delivered by organized ageing. In this, strains of microorganisms delivering significant benefits are developed under ideal conditions in supplement media in aging tanks holding a few thousand gallons. The mold is strained out of the maturation soup, and afterward the antibiotic is expelled from the stock by filtration, precipitation, and other detachment systems. At times new antimicrobials are lab blended, while numerous antibiotics are created by artificially adjusting regular substances; numerous such subordinates are more powerful than the characteristic substances against contaminating creatures or are better consumed by the body. Potential problems with antibiotics-tetracycline Antibiotics are either infused, given orally, or applied to the skin. A number of them, while strong against infective agents, additionally cause lethal symptoms. Some, similar to penicillin, are exceedingly allergenic and can bring about skin allergies, shock, and different types of sensitivity to allergens.Others, for example, the tetracycline, bring about real changes in the intestinal bacterial and can bring about super infection by parasites and different microorganisms.[3,10] Tetracyclines ought to be utilized with caution in patients with liver weakness.[10]Those tetracyclines that are soluble in water and urine intensify renal failure (this is not valid for the lipid dissolvable operators doxycycline and minocycline). They may expand muscle weakness in myasthenia Gravis and compound systemic lupus erythematosus. [3] Quality control is of most significance in the generation of antibiotics. Since it includes a fermentation procedure, steps must be taken to guarantee that truly no defilement is presented anytime amid generation. At this end, the medium and the greater part of the equipment are completely steam cleaned. Amid manufacturing, the rule for the end product of antibiotics is to look out for a normalancy every now and then.Of specific significance are successive checks of the state of the antimicrobial culture during fermenting. These are done using different chromatography strategies. Additionally, different physical and chemical properties of the completed item are checked, for example, pH, liquefying point, and dampness content. . https://explorable.com/images/antibiotics.jpg http://a57.foxnews.com/global.fncstatic.com/static/managed/img/fn2/video/876/493/antibiotics%20in%20hand%20istock.jpg?ve=1tl=1 http://www.onlineclinic.net/images/blog/injectable-l.jpg Scope for improvement and future of antibiotics Since the development of a new medicine is a costly affair, pharmaceutical organizations have done almost no research in the most recent decade. Notwithstanding, a disturbing improvement has prodded a restored enthusiasm for the advancement of new antibiotics.[7] It just so happens, a part of the ailment causing microorganisms has altered and built up resistance to a large number of the standard antibiotics, including tetracyclines.[6] This could have grave outcomes on the worlds general wellbeing unless new antibiotics are found or enhancements are made on the ones that are accessible. This testing issue will be the center of exploration for a long time to come. Researchers are attempting to develop new methodologies to battle the developmental risk of micro-organisms that present antibiotics like tetracyclines cant battle. A few specialists are trying new substances; for example, silver, to consolidate with antibiotics to support their killing force.[2] Different scientists are making the utilization of hereditary sequencing of microbes to help create medications at a quicker pace than medical science was equipped for previously. Another system expects to render destructive microorganisms unequipped for contaminating individuals, as opposed to killing the micro-organisms through and through. One such procedure would kill infection, bringing about poisons by disturbing the microscopic organisms interior components. Conclusion Antibiotics, including tetracyclines have a limited lifetime in light of the fact that resistance is inevitable, therefore, theres dependably a need to innovate.[1] Bacteria have methods for shielding themselves against other microorganisms, and most antibiotics are obtained from the poisons they utilize. Distinguishing and growing new antibiotics is a long and moderate process. Whether the antibiotic will be valuable in treating individuals stays to be seen. The principle issue with recognizing new antibiotics isnt that they dont work. They work and yet they cause serious symptoms or danger. References Antibiotic Development: the Battle to Overcome Antibiotic Resistance. (1984). Inpharma, 437(1), 4-4. Averting the antibiotics apocalypse now. (2013). New Scientist, 217(2908), 3. Bevelander, G. (1963). Effects of Tetracycline. BMJ, 1(5322), 54-54. Chlortetracycline. (1999). Reactions Weekly, &NA;(773), 7-8. Filippova, S., Surgucheva, N., Gal’chenko, V. (2012). Long-term storage of collection cultures of actinobacteria. Microbiology, 81(5), 630-637. Litman, J. Antibiotic Resistance. SSRN Journal. NEW ANTIBIOTICS. (1976). Inpharma, 45(1), 12-12. Oxytetracycline (terramycin). (1955). Tubercle, 36(3), 92. TETRACYCLINE. (1954). The Lancet, 263(6813), 664. Tetracycline Hepatotoxicity. (1964). BMJ, 2(5424), 1545-1546. Tetracycline see Doxcycline/tetracycline. (1988). Reactions, 224(1), 8-8. Tetracyclines from Scratch. (2005). Science, 308(5720), 321e-321e.

Literature review construction project costs

Literature review construction project costs This chapter comprises of literature review, quotes of the various related works done in this area of studies. The duration of construction projects right from inception to completion is assuming great importance in the construction industry. The author of this project work believes that, this shift in attention on constructioin delays is taking it rightful place of importance in the global construction sector. Clients or consumers are no longer content merely with minimal cost and adequate functional performance for their projects; increasing interest rates, inflation and other commercial pressures, among other factors, mean that it is in many instances most cost-effective to complete a project within the shortest possible time.The the current hursh financial climate does not allow for subcontractors not to be prudent with project planning and delivery , hence the reason for chosing to write on this subject. The most significant unbudgeted costs on many construction projects are the financial impacts associated with delay and disruption to the works. Owners and Subcontrcators have one common objective; to complete the project in time and within budget. It is the failure of this objective of time which leads to failure of budget and ultimately gives rise to disputes. There is no consensus in the literature on the identification of factors which affect stipulated, planned or achieved construction times of buildings. One reason for this is that researchers have largely viewed the subject from diverse prospective. Such viewpoints include identification of discrete factors which affect productivity on site and taking a systems view of the construction process and end product (Nkado R.N, 1995) The inherent and often unanticipated risks on construction projects present key challenges to subcontracting firms. For example, if a project is delayed or disrupted, significant resources are engaged and management time consumed. The outcome can have serious consequences on corporate value. One loss-making project can wipe out the profit on 50 successful ones and significantly damage a companys reputation. In the current economic climate, claims and disputes are increasingly more likely. Construction delays are not a modern phenomena.The delays on some of the UKs most famous landmarks, such as St Pauls Cathederal, the Houses of Parliament and the Clifton Suspension Bridge would make the delays on more recent high profile construction projects look distinctly trifling (Lowsley et al, 2006) Delay Ñ-ц¢ generally acknowledged à Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ thà Ã‚ µ mà Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢t common, costly, complex à Ã‚ °nd riц¢ky problem encountered Ñ-n construction projectц¢. Becauц¢e à Ã‚ ¾f thà Ã‚ µ overriding ц¢ignificance à Ã‚ ¾f tÑ-me fà Ã‚ ¾r both thà Ã‚ µ proprietor (Ñ-n termц¢ à Ã‚ ¾f performance) à Ã‚ °nd thà Ã‚ µ ц¢upplier (Ñ-n termц¢ à Ã‚ ¾f money), it Ñ-ц¢ thà Ã‚ µ ц¢ource à Ã‚ ¾f frequent diц¢puteц¢ à Ã‚ °nd claimц¢ leading tà Ã‚ ¾ lawц¢uitц¢. Delayц¢ occur Ñ-n almost every construction project à Ã‚ °nd thà Ã‚ µ magnitude à Ã‚ ¾f theц¢e delayц¢ varieц¢ conц¢iderably frà Ã‚ ¾m project tà Ã‚ ¾ project. à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ome projectц¢ à Ã‚ °re only à Ã‚ ° few dayц¢ behind ц¢chedule; ц¢ome à Ã‚ °re delayed bу over à Ã‚ ° year. à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦o it Ñ-ц¢ eц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ential tà Ã‚ ¾ define thà Ã‚ µ actual cauц¢eц¢ à Ã‚ ¾f delay Ñ-n order tà Ã‚ ¾ minimize à Ã‚ °nd avoid delay Ñ-n any construction project (Ahmed et al., 2003). Chan et al (2004) Concluded in a research conducted to measure the success of construction projects that, cost, time and quality are the three basic and most important performance indicators in consruction projects.Other measures such as safety, functionality and satisfaction etc. are also currently attracting increasing attention. Chan et al, (2004) accentuated that accurate construction planning is a key factor in ensuring the delivery of a project on schedule and within budget. As almost all projects comprise a large number of interdependent items of work and involve many participants, reliable plans and accurate progress-recording mechanisms become essential to project success. Mbachu, et al(2005) discover the sources of strategies for minimising risks in the construction projects and categorised the results into internal and external sources.The internal sources of risks, which fall under the control of clients ,consultants and Subcontractors , include those risk elements emanationg from their acts or omissions in the project development process. They noted that, the most frequently mentioned risk elements under client sources include frequent and late changes at critical stages of the design and construction process, poor leadership and inadequate supervisions on the part of Contractors and subcontractors, low productivity, re-work and lossess, delays in supplying equipment, materials and components. For the consultants, incomplete design information and delay in supplying information required by contractors on site.The external risk sources, which are not within the control of the client and the project team, could be segregated into economic and globalisation dynamics, unforeseen circumstances/force majeue, government, statutory, political controls, health and safety risk elements and socio-cultural issue.smia12010-07-21T16:29:00 Who says this is so? If it5s you then you nned to say what leads you to this concluswionyou Typeц¢ of delay A delay to a construction project generally means delay to the planned completion date or a delay to a particular activity or sequence of activities (Lowsley et al, 2006) Delays can be grouped in the following four broad categories according to how they operate contractually: non-excusable delays; excusable non-compensable delays; excusable compensable delays; and concurrent delayц¢ The Bureau of Engineering Project Delivery Manual version 2 released in October 2006 smia12010-07-21T16:30:00 You need to give a proper reference for this. Who are the Bureau of Engineering Project Delivery?categorised construction delays in three basic types of delays, namely; Excusable-Non-Compensatory (Concurrent), Non-Excusable and Excusable-Compensatory. Non Excusable Delay Non-Excusable delays are events that are within the Subcontractors control or that are foreseeable. These delays might be the results of late performance of Subcontractors, untimely performance by suppliers, faulty workmanship by the subcontractor, underestimate of productivity, inadequate scheduling or mamanagement, equipment breakdowns, staffing problems, a project specific labour strikes caused by either the Subcontractors with the labour representative or by unfair labour practices(Trauner et al,2009) Excusable Non Compensable Delay An excusable delay is caused by factors that are not foreseeable, beyond the Subcontractors control .The implication of the term means that, neither party is at fault under the terms and conditions of the contract and has agreed to share the risk and consequences when excusable events occur. The Subcontractor will not receive compensation for the cost of delay, but he will be entitled for an additional time to smia12010-07-21T16:31:00 Always? Dosent this depend on the terms of his sub-contract? complete his work and is also relieved from any contractually imposed liquidated damages for the period of delay (Ahmed et al, 2003) 2.5 Excusable Compensable Delay (Ahmed et al, 2003) acknowledged that, compensable delays are those that are generally caused by the owner or its agents. If the delay is compensable, then the contractor is entitled not only to an extension of time but also to an adjustment for any increase in costs caused by the delay. Owner-issued contracts specifically address some potential compensable delays and provide equitable adjustments. The usual equitable adjustable clauses in owner issued contracts that apply are: Changes, Dithering Site Conditionsmia12010-07-21T16:32:00 What does this mean?, and Suspension 2.6 Concurrent delays The concept of concurrent delay has become a very common presentation as part of some analysis of construction delays. The concurrency argument is not just from the standpoint of determining the projects critical delays but from the standpoint of assigning responsibility for damages associated with delays to the critical path. Owners will often cite concurrent delays by the contractor as a reason for issuing a time extension without additional compensation.Contractors will often cite concurrent delays by the owners as a reason why liquilidated damages should not be assessed for its delays. Concurrent delays are separate delays to the critical path that occur at the same time. (Lowsley et al, 2006) Rubin et al. (1983) defined concurrent delays as the situation in which two or more delays occur at the same time either of which had it occurred alone, would have affected the ultimate completion date. It means each of the delays must independently affect the critical path. Reynolds et al (2001) argue that to be considered concurrent delays, the delays need not commence precisely at the same time. Arditi et al (1995) had a view that, the delays need not occur in the same activity on the same critical path but may exist in different activities on parallel critical path as well. The SCL Protocol (SCL, 2002) describe a true concurrent delay as the occurrences of the delays, one an employer risk event and the other a contractor risk event, at the same time, and their effects felt at the same time. This occurrence is, however, extremely rare in practice since time is infinitely divisible. For instance, two delay events occurring on the same day would not necessarily be true concurrent delays because one may have occurred in the morning while the other in the afternoon. Concurrent delay is also rather misleadingly used to refer to the occurrence of two or more delay events at different times but their effect are felt (in whole or in part) at the same time. As a summary, Figure 1 classifies the different types of delays based on their various attributes. Figure 1: Delay Classifications (Nuhu Braimah 2008) 2.7 Primary Causes of Delay There are two kinds of reason for delay in construction project: external causes; and internal cauц¢eц¢.Internal causes of delay include the causes arising from four partià Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ involved in the project. These partià Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ include the proprietor, designers, contractorц¢, and conц¢ultantц¢. Other delays, which do not arise from these four partià Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢, are based on external factors for example from the government, material suppliers, or the weather (Ahmed et al., 2003). Semple et al. (1994) found that making provisions in a construction programme for events such as weather delays reduces disputes. Cost and time claims, especially those which are difficult to quantify, regularly result in disputes between the contractual parties. Weather contingencies are very seldom adequate, in terms of progress and cost, due to the use of varied methods used in the industry for weather contingency calculations. This results in adverse client-contractor relationships. Caenell.N.J, C2005) Cited the appropriateness to look at the matters which actually cause delay during the works themselves. The Contractor/Subcontractors responsibly for delays arise due to a failure on the part of the contractor to carry out the planning stages of the works properly, others will be due to an inability to perform in the manner agreed in the contract.This is in line with the authors believes that, most delays are caused by inefficiencies on the part of the Subcontractors. Employers responsibility or neutral events are caused through an act or omission of the employer or his team or by a matter which does not arise through the fault of the contractor. These are governed by the contract conditions. A useful list according to Carnell N.J (2005) is listed in Clause 25.4 of JCT 98 and includes: Force majeure,Exceptionally adverse weather conditions,Clause 22 perils(flood and the like),Civil commotion, strike or lock out,Compliance with architects instructions,Non-receipt of essential information,Delays by nominated suppliers or sub-contractors, artisans and tradesmen,Government action,Restrictions on the availability of labour or materials,Delays by,statutory undertakers,Delays in giving access to the works Ahmed et al, (2003) also mentioned the following as some possible causes of delays in construction project in nowadays: Possessive decision-making mechanism, highly bureaucratic organization, insufficient data collection and survey before design Site topography is changed after design,Lack of coordination at design phase,Inadequate review,Improper inspection approach,Different attitude between the consultant and contractors/subcontractors,Financial difficulties,Inexperience personnel,Insufficient number of staffs,Deficiency in project coordination,time spent to find sub contractors,company who is appropriate for each task,Often changing Sub -contracting company,Inadequate and old equipment,Lack of high-technology equipment and Harvest time. Ahmed et al (2003) cited Ogunlana et all (2001) as having studied the delays in Thailand, as an example of developing economies.They concluded that the problems of the construction industry in developing economies could be nested in three layers:(1) Problem of shortages or inadequacies on industry infrastructure, mainly supply of resources, (2) Problems caused by clients and consultants and (3) Problems caused by incompetence of Contractors. Assaf et al (1995) Listed 56 extensive causes of disputes over delay and identified them as : shortage of construction material, changes in types and specifications during construction, slow delivery of material, damage of material in storage, delay in the special manufacture of the building material, shortage of labour, labour skills, nationality of labourers, equipment failure, equipment shortage, unskilled operators, slow delivery of equipment, equipment productivity, financing by Contractor during construction, delays in Contractors progress payment by Owner, cash problems during construction, design changes by Owner or his agent during construction, design errors made by designers, foundation conditions smia12010-07-21T16:35:00 These would be far better rpesented as a bullet pointed listencountered in the field, mistake in soil investigation, water table conditions on site, geological problems on site, obtaining permits from municipality, obtaining permits for labourers, excessive bureaucracy in project Owner operation, building code used in the design of the project, preparation and approval of shop drawings, waiting for sample material approval, preparation of scheduling networks and revisions, lack of training personnel and management support, lack of database in estimating activity duration and resources, judgement of experience in estimating time and resources, project delivery systems used, hot weather effect on construction activities, insufficient available utilities on site, the relationship between different subcontractors schedule, the conflict between the consultant and the Contractor, uncooperative Owners, slowness of the Owner decision making process, the joint ownership of the project, poor o rganization, insufficient communication between Owner and designer at the design phase, unavailability of professional construction management, inadequate early planning of the project, inspection and testing procedures used in the projects, errors committed during field, application of quality control based on foreign specification, controlling subcontractors by general Contractors in the execution of the works, the unavailability of financial incentives for Contractor to finish ahead of schedule, negotiations and obtaining of contracts, legal disputes between various parties, social and cultural factors, accidents during construction . Ahmed et al. (2003) maintained that the iц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ue of responsibility for delay Ñ-ц¢ related to whether the supplier Ñ-ц¢ awarded or Ñ-ц¢ liable for costs and additional time to complete the project. The categories of reц¢ponц¢ibilitieц¢ are: proprietor (or agent) responsible supplier will be granted à Ã‚ ° time extension and additional costs (indirect), where warranted; supplier (or subcontractor) responsible supplier will not be granted time or costs and may have to pay damages/penalties; neither party (e.g. act of God) responsible supplier will receive additional time to complete the project but no costs will be granted and no damages/penalties aц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢eц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ed; and both partià Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ responsible supplier will receive additional time to complete the project but no costs will be granted and any damages/penalties aц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢eц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ed. smia12010-07-21T16:36:00 Always? Dosent this depend on the risk allocation in the contract? Ying et al (2005) acknowledged five factors that influence time performance as; Long project scope identification, low speed of decision making, inadequate managerial skills during the planning phase, insuffiecient contractor completion and Lack of a strong organasational culture. Okumbe et al (2008) researched on Construction Industry perpestive on causes and effects of delays in South Africa and highlighted causes of dealy in payment as consultants inefficiency,lack of professionalism by the government employees,incompetence caused by insufficient staff,bureaucratic procedures experienced by government/client,late processing by project quantity surveyors ,late prepartion of payment certificate,claiming problems,late approval of work by architect and engineers,continous formulation of new policies by The Public Procurement and Asset Disposal Board (PPADB),poor budgeting by the client,late submission of cost reports by projects quantity surveyors,lack of understanding of contractual obligations and lack of funding,late project delivery,delays, in materials supply,labour stoppage as employess may go on strike if not paid on time,cash flow problems faced by contractors,contractors claiming extension of time with costs,risk of poor workmanship,poor contract deli very and default in paying suppliesrs and employers. In addition to causes of delays and who is responsible for them, there are other delay-related effects that may occur. High on the list is a decrease in the Contractors efficiency caused by the delays. The delays may directly cause the inefficiency or be caused by the inefficiency. Gorse (2004) Suggested that a well-evidenced claim, supported by an appropraite documentation, that properly establishes cause and effect and reasonably quantities the losses for each event will probably succeeds. Frimpong et al (2003)Conducted a survey on the causes of delay and cost overruns in construction of groundwater projects in a developing countries;Ghana as a case study and the main conclusions of the survey were;monthly payments difficulties from agencies,matarial procurement,poor technical performance,escalation of matarial prices accordinging to their degree of influence and theses were considered as major factors.The other factors that emerged as not very important ,but of interest were,bad weather,unfavorable geological conditions. Ahmed et al (2003) carried out a research which revealed the ranking of design related key delays.The most general design related caused delay was found to be taking place during the inspection phase followed by material/fabrication period, poor subcontract performance, material procurement and construction mistake as shown on figure 2. Source: Ahmed et al. ;( 2003) Figure 2: Ranking of design related key delays Effects of Delay on Construction Cost A brief review of text books and reports smia12010-07-21T16:38:00 What books and reports? You should at least give some example referencesreveal that construction excellence has not only become an option but a necessity, if the UK construction industry is to survive economics dynamics and changing social needs. Considering the industry is one of the pillars of the domestic economy making approximately 10 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employing considerable number of workers, it is important to note that construction excellence is critical for the UK economy and its future. When a project is delayed, the owner, Contractor, or both may incur added costs. The determination of the amount of these costs is based on the results from the delay analysis and the determination of liability once the critical delays have been identified. (Trauner et al, 2009) More importantly, the construction industry needs to improve itself in order to increase profitability, quality of deliverables and client needs before it can contribute to the economy. There are many possible factors that can cause actual labour costs to exceed estimated costs such as engineering errors and omissions, excessive changes, delay and acceleration and weather. These factors may require contractors to work out of sequence, hire more manpower than planned, work scheduled overtime and utilize more costly methods of construction. (Borcherding et al, 2006). Trauner et al (2009) listed the following as examples of how delays can lead to inefficiencies. Shifts in construction sections-A delay to a project can shift work originally scheduled for one season into a different season. Availability of resources-Delays can affect the availability or resources in the areas of manpower, subcontracts or equipment. Manpower levels and distribution-Changes may be needed in terms of additions manpower, erratic staffing or variations in preferred/optimum gang size. Lowe et al (2006) described disputes as being the source of possible time and cost overrun and possible adversarial relationships between the different parties. This is not welcome to either the Owner or the Contractor. Cost overrun might lead to the project being unsuccessful, unfeasible or invalidate any benefits. Although avoiding disputes has been suggested, this is not usually possible and where disputes cannot be avoided efforts should be made to manage and contain the consequences. It is to the benefit of both the Employer and the Subcontractor to manage disputes towards a resolution as this will safeguard the success of the project. Cormican (1985) observed that the construction industry in UK is always at the top of the bankruptcy league and the most dangerous of all sectors. These unhealthy developments underpin the prevailing abandonment of projects and undermine the viability and sustainability of the construction industry. Akinci et al (1998) categorised risk factors affecting cost performance into organisation specific, global and acts of God. The organisation specific risks are internal risks related to the organisations resources and management including labour skills and availability, material delivery and quality, equipment reliability and availability, and managerial efficiency. Global risks are those that transcend the boundaries of the contracting organisation yet having large impact on it. These include estimating related, design related, level of competition, fraudulent practices, construction related, economic related and political relatedsmia12010-07-21T16:40:00 This is OK as far as it goes, but the literature revierw is supposed to be a CRITICAL review yours is really just a list of someone said thisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. You really need to summariuse at the end what the key issues are from your literature review, and how they relate to your particular problem..